The Smrtis marks a distinct period in the evolution of Sanskrit literature. The Manusmrti is the most important and earliest metrical work of the Dharma Sastra textual tradition of Hinduism. It is a standard work on Hindu law. Indian tradition unanimously regards Manu as the first progenitor of the human race and also its first legislator. This Manu was believed to be the founder of the social and moral order of society. Tracing backward from the Smrtis to the Vedas we found the consciousness of Manu’s being the first lawgiver present in every epoch of Sanskrit literature.
In the Rgveda, the sages often speak of Manu as ‘father’1 without expressly saying ‘of whom’. But in the Rgveda II.33.13, the sage speaks of Manu as ‘our father’ (yani manur-avrnita pita nah). In the Rgveda2, Indra is spoken of as the shatterer of many cities (of the asuras), as the killer of days, and as bringing prosperity to Manu as the lord of heaven.
In the Taittiriya Samhita and the Tandya-Maha Brahmana, it is said: “Whatever Manu said is medicine3. The Taittiriya Samhita4 also says that mankind is Manu’s Praja. The Satapatha Brahmana5 gives us the story of Manu and the deluge. In the Nirukta (Ch. III) there is a discussion about the rights of sons and daughters. The Mahabharata6 in numerous places speaks of Manu, sometimes as Manu simply, sometimes as Svayambhuva Manu, and also as Pracetasa Manu7.
Generally known in English as the laws of Manu, or dharmic discourse to Vedic sages, on the way of living of various classes of society, it was first translated into English in 1794 by Sir William Jones, a linguist, English Orientalist, and judge of the British Supreme Court of judicature in Calcutta. The text presents itself as a discourse given by the sage Manu, to a congregation of seers. Manu became the standard point of reference for all future Dharma Sastras that followed it. Although no details of this great author's life are known, he likely belonged to a conservative Brahmin class somewhere in Northern India.
There have been numerous commentaries written on the Manu Smrti, Viz. Bharuci and Medhatithi, etc. Bharuci is the oldest known commentator on the Manu Smrti. P. V. Kane places him in the late 10th or early 11th Century A.D. Olivelle places him in the 8th century, and Derrett places him between 600-650 CE. From these three opinions, we can place BhÁruci anywhere from the early 7th Century CE to the early 11th Century CE. The surviving portion of Bharuci’s commentary that we have today deals mostly with the duties of the king and whether or not the king can be a source of dharma. Medhatithi is one of the most famous commentaries on the Manu Smrti and there is some debate regarding the location in which he was writing, but scholars such as Bühler, Kane, and Lingat tend to believe he was from Kashmir or the area around Kashmir. The exact date of Medhatithi is not clear, but he has been placed anywhere between 820 CE and 1050 CE.
The extant Manu Smrti is divided into twelve Chapters. It is written in a simple and flowing style. It generally agrees with Panini’s system. The contents of the Manusmrti may be briefly summarised as follows; the First chapter describes: the sages approach Manu for instruction in the dharmas of the varnas; Manu describes the creation of the world from the self-existent God more or less in the Sankhya manner; the creation of Viraj of Manu from Viraj, of ten sages from Manu; creation of various beings, men, beasts, birds, etc.; Brahma imparts Dharmasastra to Manu, who teaches the sages; Manu bids Bhrgu instruct the sages in dharma; six other Manus sprang from Svayambhuva Manu; units of time from nimesa to year, four yugas and their twilights; extent of Manvantara; pralaya; the successive decline of dharma in the four yugas; different dharmas and goals in the four yugas; the special privileges and duties of the four varnas; eulogy of Brahmans and the Sastra of Manu; acara is the highest dharma; table of contents of the whole Sastra. The second chapter describes the definition of dharma, sources of dharma are Veda, Smriti, acara of the good, one’s satisfaction; who has adhikara for this Sastra; limits of Brahmavarta, Brahmarsidesa, Madhyadesa, Àryavarta; why samskaras are necessary; duties of Brahmacari and his code of conduct. Chapter third elaborates rules of marriage; the duties of husband and wife; the eulogy of women; the five daily sacrifices concept of Sraddha etc. The fourth chapter describes the mode of life and means of subsistence for a house-holder; the coe and conduct for a snataka; occasions for cessation from the study; rules about prohibited and permissible food and drink. Chapter fifth elaborates on the period of impurity on death and birth; the definition of sapinda: purification from contact with various substances in various ways duties of wife and widow. Chapter six describes: when one should become a forest hermit; his mode of life; parivrajaka and his duties; eulogy of grhastha, etc. Chapter seven explains: rajadharmas, eulogy of danda; the four vidyas for the king; the ten vices of kings due to kÁma and eight due to krodha; construction of council of ministers; qualities of various departments; code of war; the four expedients, sama, dana, bheda, and danda; rules about taxation; the construction of a circle of twenty kings; the six gunas, peace, a state of war, etc. Chapter eight describes the king's duty; the king and judge; the constitution of sabhÁ; methods of corporal punishment; weights and measures; lowest, middling, and highest fines; rates of interest; pledges; resumption of gifts; non-payment of wages; violation of conventions; boundary disputes abuse. etc. Chapter nine explains: the legal duties of husband and wife; niyoga described and condemned; the age of marriage; twelve kinds of sonship; to whom pindas are offered, nearest sapinda succeeded; varieties of strÍdharma; gains of learning; re-union; mother and grandmother as heirs; the five great sins; prayascittas for them; seven aÉgas of a kingdom, duties of vaisya and Sudra.
Chapter ten describes Brahmin alone to teach: mixed castes; mlecchas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Ïakas, rules of conduct common to all; privileges and duties of four varnas, seven proper modes of acquisition and means of livelihood. Chapter eleven describes the eulogy of gifts; different views about prayascitta; various sin results, diseases, and bodily effects due to sins in former lives; mortal sins and prayasccitas for them; holy mantras for removing sin. Chapter twelve elaborates: on disquisition on karma; ksetrajña, bhutatma, jiva; tortures of hell; the three gunas, the concept of moksa; knowledge of the self is the highest means of bliss; private and nivrtta karma; eulogy of Vedas; the reward of studying of the Manava-Sastra or Manu Smriti.
