Architecture and sculpture, both sacred and secular, have witnessed the best of human imagination and innovation serving culture and civilization in their evolution all over the world. Coming to her present generation, while the global necessity is the protection of nature, sustainable development and eco-friendly creations and constructions, the artists, sculptors and architects in the east and the west have started rediscovering the classic oriental standard outlined in scriptures or presented in scientific details in specific technical texts in Sanskrit and allied languages, which have been practice for a very long time in human history. This is invariably proved by the great monuments and heritage sites incredible Indian sub-continent.
Art is synonymous with silpa or kala or more precisely silpa-kala, which is the subject matter of Silpa-sastra. The term silpa means an ‘art’. Here Silpa-sastra is used as Vastu-sastra. The literal rendering of Vastu-sastra would be ‘Science of Architecture’, but a complete Vastu- sastra deal with more than what is generally understood by architecture. So, Silpa-sastra or Vastu-sastra means, treatises on Art and Architecture or any Art, fine or mechanical. In the Vastu- sastra the term architecture is taken in its broadest sense and implies what is built or constructed. Thus, in the first place, it denotes all kinds of buildings and their auxiliary members and component mouldings. Secondly, it covers town –planning; laying out gardens; constructing market- places including ports and harbours; marking roads, bridges, gateways, triumphal arches; digging wells, tanks, drains, sewers; building enclosure walls, embankments, dams, railings, landing places, flights of steps for hills and bathing steps and ladders. Besides, it also connotes articles of furniture, such as bedsteads, couches, tables, chairs, wardrobes, baskets, cages, nests, mills, lamps, etc. It also includes the making of dresses and ornaments such as chains, crowns, heads-gear and foot and arm wear. The architecture includes sculpture and deals with a carving of phalli, idols of deities, statues of great personages, and images of animals and birds. It is also concerned with such preliminary matters as the selection of a site, testing of soil, planning, designing, finding out cardinal points by a gnomon, and astronomical and astrological calculations. Though several Pauranic, Agamic and other texts deal with the above subjects there are two recognized schools of Indian Silpa tradition, viz. the Northern or Aryan or Nagara School (School of Visvakarma) and the Southern or Dravidian School (School of Maya). The major Northern Silpa texts are (1) Visvakrarma-Prakash, (2) Samarangana-Sutradhara, (3) Aparajita-Prccha, (4) Rupa- Mandana, etc, Similarly, the major Southern Silpa treatises are (1) Mayamata, (2) Amsumad-bheda, (3) Agastya-Sakaldhikara, (4) Silparatna, (5)Manasara, etc.
The Major –Northern Silpa (Vastu) texts are:
The Visvlakarma- Prakasa of Visvakarman is an important and popular work on the Northern Vastu tradition, which bears the titles: Visvakarma-Vastu-Sastra and Visvakarmiya-Silpa-Sastra. The treatise contains thirteen chapters. The text deals with directions on the building of houses making of roads, tanks, etc.
The Samarangana-Sutradhara is attributed to king Bhojadeva of Dhara (11th century). Comprising 83 chapters it deals with almost all the subjects of Architecture, both secular and religious.
The Aparjita-Prccha of Bhuvanadavacarya is a standard work on the Northern school of Indian Architecture and sculpture. The iconographical details of this treatise are not only exhaustive and extensive enough but here are described practically all important classes of deities –Saiva, Vaisnava, Brahma, Saura, Sakta and Ganapatya. The Jaina images are also included in the subject matter of the text.
The Rupamandana of Mandan is also an important work on Iconography. It deals with various subjects like murti-nirvana data- puja-vidhi, Visnu murtis and Sivamurtis, etc.
Major Southern Silpa (Vastu ) texts are:
The Mayamata is a very extensive work on Silpa and occupies a fairly well–defined place in the artistic tradition of India. Comprising about 3300 verses in classical anustubh metres and divided into 36 chapters, it is identified as an ancient treatise on Dravidian Vastu-vidya (Sastra). Of these, the first thirty-two on Architecture bear the same titles as the corresponding chapters of the Mansasra. Of the remaining four sculptures in place of twenty-one of the Mansara, two deal with the Phalli and Pedestals of Siva, one on minor works (and karma) of the sculpture and one on images in general. It is to be noted that in respect of the titles of chapters, their sequence, except in one instance, contents, and method of treatment, the Mayamat runs exactly like the Manasara step by step.
The Amsumad-bheda is attributed to Kasyapa, which deals with sculpture more extensively than Mansasra. The work has eighty-six chapters, where architecture is treated in the first forty-five and the last two chapters. These forty-seven chapters are similar in many respect to the first fifty chapters of the Mansara. However, the treatise deals more elaborately with sculptural objects in the rest thirty-nine chapters. As this text is the follower of the Agama by name, so the Saiva icons are predominant here as well.
The Agastya- Sakaladhikara is attributed to sage Agasty, who is frequently cited as an authority in the field of Architecture. The word ‘Sakala’ means an ‘icon and hence this text is exclusively written on sculpture. As the text is in the line of Agamic tradition, hence only Saiva icons form the subject matter of this famous treatise: tripurantaka-laksana, ardanarisvara-laksana and pasupata-laksana, etc. Several of the chapters are based directly upon the corresponding chapters of the Manasara. The date and authorship are not yet known.
The Silparatna of Srikumara (16th century A.D.) is based on the Dravidian Vastu-vidya tradition. It deals with practically all classes of icons, viz. Siva, Visnava, Sakta and others belonging to Pancayatana groups, along with the images of miscellaneous deities.
The Present work Mansara is regarded as the most standard and popular, rather the fountainhead of all the Silpa or Vastu treatises. The etymological rendering of the word ‘manasara’ is the essence of measurement’, ‘Sara’ means essence and ‘mana’ is measurement. It may, however, be rendered by ‘the standard measurement ‘or ‘the system of proportion’. In this sense, the full title Mansara-Vastu-sastra would imply a Vastu-sastra or ‘Science of Architecture’, where the essence of measurement is contained, the standard measurement followed, or the system of proportions embodied. There is an ambiguity as regards the signification of this standard work. The colophon annexed to each of the seventy chapters contains the expression’ Manasara vastu-sastre’. This is intended to mean either the Vastu sastra by Manasara or the Vastu-sastra named Mansara. In other words, Mansara would seem to be such a name as may be applied to the author as well as to the work. In a passage in the treatise itself, the term mansara has been used in both this sense: ( Krtamiti akhilamuktam manasarm puranaih/Pitamahendrapramukaih samaastaih devairidam sastravaram puroditam/ tasmatsamudhrtya hi mansasam sastram krtam lokahitarthameta Mansasra, LXX.57cd-58). Therein it is held that “all this is stated to have been compiled by ancient Mansaras. This great Science was formerly revealed by all the gods beginning with the creator and the king of gods. Having been compiled by therefrom, this treatise Mansara is made for the benefit of the people”. In the above passage the term ‘manasara’ is once used in the sense of a generic name (of architects), and secondly as the title of a treatise implying ‘the essence of measurement,’ which is the etymological rendering of mansara. This later sense is explicitly expressed in another passage where it is stated that “having successively collected in a concisie form the essence of measurement from the sastra” this treatise is compiled (Mananm saram samgrhya sastre samksepatah ramat—Mansaara, XXXIII. 1 dc). The former sense is also substantiated by several other passages. In one place it is stated that “ the treatise, compiled by the sages or professors of architecture called Mansarsas, was named after the sage or architect Mnasara”(Mansara-rsinam krtam sastram Masnasra-Muninamaamasit-Mansara, I.20ab). There is yet another ambiguity in this passage, Mansara being once a generic name in the plural and a second place a personal name in the singular. As a generic name, it is used in another passage where it is stated that there are many Mansaras (Manasaro bahuh srtah-Mansara, LXVIII.6cd). The text mentions thirty-two preceding authorities or sages of Vastu –sastra or Silpa-sastra, viz., Visvakarman, visves, Visvavara, Prabodhaka, Vrta, Maya, Tvashtar, Manu, Nala, Manavid, Manaklpa, Manasara, Manabodha, Prashtar, Visvaboda, Mahatantra, Vastu- Vidyapati, Parasariuaka, Kalayupa, Chaitya, Chitraka, Avarya, Sadhakasara- samhita, Bhanu, Indra, Lokajna, and Saura. Out of these thirty-two sages or professors of architecture, the word ‘mana’ is associated with four names, viz. Mana-sara, Mana-kalpa,Mana-bodha, and Mana-vid. It is not unlikely that the sages or the architects, with whose names Mana or measurement is associated, are intended to be distinguished from the rest as being specialists in ‘measuring’ which is a very important feature of the science of architecture. It is also used exclusively as a personal name when it is stated “by the feature of the science of architecture. It is also used exclusively as a personal name when it is stated “by all great sages or old authorities, Mansara and other” (Sakalamuniva-rarmanasaradimukhaih- Manasara, LXIX.216). All available external references to the Mansara, however, point to its being used mostly as a person as personal name.
However, the exact date and authorship of the text remain untraced. But, Mansara represents that period of Indian sculptural traditions when correct proportions were the essence of Art. It is from this fundamental angle that this work has treated not only sculpture but also Architecture. The work is divided into seventy chapters, out of which the first eight are introductory, the next forty-two deal with architecture and the remaining twenty chapters are devoted to sculpture, where sculptural details of idols of Hindu, Buddhist and Jaina deities and images of animals and birds are given. In the opening verse, it is stated that the science of architecture (Vastu- sastra) has down to the sage Mansara from Siva, Brahma and Visnu, through Indra, Brhaspati, Narada and all other sages. The contents of Mansara, however, fully justify its unique position as the most representative Silpa-sastra.
Regarding the detailed subject matter of the text, it can be said that the first chapter deals with the various subjects treated under architecture. The second deals with the system of measurement. The next three chapters classify Vastu underground and the site for the building; a building which includes places, pavilions, halls, mansions, alms-houses and theatres; conveyance comprising cars, chariots, chairs, swings, and nests and cages for domesticated birds and animals. The sixth chapter deals with gnomons for ascertaining the correct cardinal points for the right orientation of buildings. The next chapter explains the scheme of site plans. The eighth and last chapter on preliminaries refers to sacrificial offerings in connection with house building. In the next two chapters, village schemes and town plans are properly elaborated, which include the layout, roads, bridges, gardens, ponds, and public buildings like temples, hospitals, etc. The next chapter deals with the principles of dimensions for buildings of various storeys. Chapter twelve describes the foundations to be given to all constructions. Chapters thirteen and fourteen deal with pillars of free-standing and supporting varieties together with their pedestals, bases, shafts, capitals and entablatures. Chapter seventeen describes the wood-joining and other wood works for the buildings. Chapter eighteen speaks about the classification of the building based on the number of storeys, and the styles of buildings, based chiefly on the shape of the top portion elaborate various parts and portions known as sikhara, sloping roofs and porticoes attached to the main building. Chapters nineteen to thirty elaborate on various parts and proportions of some hundred types of buildings furnished with one to twelve storeys. However, chapter thirty concludes with a description of staircases for all kinds of buildings. Chapter thirty-one describes various courts into which the whole compound of an edifice, temple or place is divided for the distribution of various structures. Chapter thirty-two discusses the court in a temple where the attendant deities are housed. Chapter thirty-three explains the gate-houses attached both to residential buildings and temples and concludes with an elaborate description of windows. Chapter thirty-four describes detached pavilions of various kinds which are not storeyed and are like the modern bungalows built inland and on the seashore, river banks, a hill too, etc. Chapter thirty-five elaborates on the various classes of huge mansions composed of several rows of building locations on of such buildings and their measures are treated in the next chapter. Chapter thirty-seven describes the ceremonies of housewarming or first entry into the newly built house. Chapters thirty-eight and thirty-nine deal with various kinds of doors and openings. Chapters forty to forty- two describe the royal palaces for kings of different ranks for their courts and families. Chapters forty- three to forty –five describe the cars, chariots, couches, and thrones for kings and gods and their consorts. Chapter forty-six describes decorative arches for royal and divine thrones and incidentally refers to the principle of constructive arches for building also. Chapter forty-seven explains theatres for the performance of drama, temples and palaces, and ornamental trees for decoration purposes. The royal and divine structures are described with minute details of construction in chapter forty-eight. Chapter forty-nine describes corns for royals and divine wearers and their consorts with constructive details. In the next chapter, various articles of furniture and ornaments for the body of kings, gods, their consorts and other personages are described. This concludes the description of architectural objects properly.
With similar elaborate descriptions and constructive details, the sculptural objects are described in the following twenty-one chapters, viz. Fifty to seventy. Of these chapter fifty–one describes the images of Brahma, Visnu and Siva. Chapters fifty-two to fifty –three describe the phalli of Siva and the pedestal (yoni) thereof. Chapter fifty-four explains the goddesses of various grades and measures. The Jain deities are described in the next chapter, which contains an elaborate account of sculptural measure. Chapter fifty-six describes the Buddhist images; chapter fifty-seven images of sages; chapter fifty-eight images of demi-gods; chapter fifty-nine images of devotees; chapter sixty images of goose; chapter sixty-one images of Garuda; chapter sixty –two the images of the bull and chapter sixty-three the images of the lion. Chapter sixty-four speaks about a general description of all images, especially their proportion in comparison with the measure of the house wherein they are installed as well as with the measure of the installer. The Tala measures which supply the proportion between various parts of the body of the basis of the head as the unit are illustrated in chapters sixty-five to sixty-six, where minute details of the ten and nine Tala measures are given, and the other such measures are illustrated in the preceding chapters. For further sculptural measures, the plump lines are described in chapters sixty- five to sixty-six, where minute details of the ten and nine Tala measures are given in the other such measures illustrated in the preceding chapter. For further sculptural measures, the plumb lines are described in chapter sixty-seven, whereby the sidewise distance from limb to limb of an image can be ascertained. The first casting of images in wax is described in chapter sixty-eight. Chapter sixty-nine speaks about the defects in constructing the various parts of a building and incidentally refers to the defects in making the images also. The concluding chapter describes the chiselling of the eye of an image and the setting of precious stones in different parts of the images. This way, the chapters of this text are systematically arranged and elaborate in detail all about the subject matters of art and architecture. Hence, it can be finally said that the Mansara is a unique text, which covers all most all subjects of (Silpa-sastra or Vastu-sastra) Indian Art and Architecture.
Thus, this book is an Encyclopedia of Indian Architecture, since it covers almost all the aspects of art and Architecture. Several illustrations of different Architectural aspects are nicely presented in this book, which enhances the value of the book.
Besides the general Index, a Glossary of the technical terms is also appended to the work. Hence, this book would be immensely useful to the students as well as researchers to know and understand the real meaning, value and importance of Indian Art and Architecture.
This edition is purely based on the previous edition of Prof. P.K. Acharya, published in Allahabad. As an editor, I have tried my best to correct the text as well as the translation, whenever I found necessary, i.e. based on written evidence/ documents. I have learnt a lot from the previous edition, and hence, I am thankful to him for his outstanding scholarship.
I beg to express my sincere regards and thankfulness to Professor Ganesh Dutt Bhardwaj (Former Chairman, Deptt. of V.V. B.I. S. and I.S., Punjab University, Hoshiarpur), Honourable Member Secretary, Himachal Sanskrit Academy, Govt. of Himachal Pradesh, Shimla, for his enlightening inspiration and valuable suggestions from to time to complete this work properly.
I am also grateful to Dr Surendra Mohan Mishra, Dept of Sanskrit, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, for his scholarly guidance and constant encouragement.
I am extending my sincere thanks to Prof. Shuk Dev Sharma, V.V. R. I., Hoshiapur, Prof. Raghbir Singh, Chairman, Deptt. Of V.V.B.I.S. and I.S., Punjab University, Hoshiparpur, Prof. Rajinder Kumar Sharma, Prof.Prem Lal Sharm a and Prof. Krishna Murari Sharma, V. V. B. I. S. and I. S, Punjab University, Hoshiarpur, for their kind co-operation and scholarly suggestions.
I offered my most sincere thanks to my wife Mrs Shradhamjali Panda and my lovely daughter Prajna for their kind cooperation in accomplishing this work on time.
Shri C.P. Gautam, publisher, of Bharatiya Kaka Prakashan, Delhi, deserves special mention here. Due to his interest and sincere effort, the book has been brought out in time and also in a beautiful form. Hence, I extend my heartiest thanks to him.
Lastly, I owe an enormous debt of gratitude to all those scholars, Institutions and Publishers, whose works/ editions have helped me a lot in preparing this book. I am also equally thankful to Shri Raman Chaudhury for his useful suggestions.
